Charasmatic Leader free essay sample

The German humanist Max Weber is the individual liable for presentation the possibility of allure just like a kind of administration. Weber accepted that pioneers who had alluring authority characteristics were exceptionally regarded people. Talcott Parson is generally attributed with bringing in Weber’s thoughts to the United States. Lowell Bennion was the main individual answerable for making accessible Weber’s unique thoughts in the United States. (Papers, 2009) There is a lot of debate about whether allure is guaranteed or acquire characteristic and in the event that it prompts compelling pioneers. An appealling pioneer is one who pulls in devotees through their character and capacity to constrain individuals in their mind. These pioneers will in general have articulate talking aptitudes that empower them to force or enrapture a crowd of people, great listening aptitudes that cause the speaker to feel significant, an inspirational mentality, and the capacity to motivate the individuals enthusiastically. They can likewise center a lot of consideration in perusing their condition and are acceptable at sussing out the temperaments and concerns their crowd. This permits them to sharpen their activities/words to suit the circumstance. (Ronald E. Riggio, 2012) Charisma can likewise have a negative effect. Some charming pioneers can lead individuals into odious activities. A youthful official, Napoleon Bonaparte, in the French armed force was effective in light of the fact that he naturally thought about human conduct and the way that one expected to demonstrate thankfulness to the individuals who helped you succeed. A genuine case of this was after a key triumph; Bonaparte requested the gold and silver seized from those vanquished when he at that point dropped to his officers as much appreciated. Napoleon’s moxy inevitably drove his military into fights (Russia) that counsels esteemed not worth this hazard and his detainment. (McManus) Good instances of charming pioneers incorporate Martin Luther King Jr. , Gandhi, and Winston Churchill; they were known as powerful, charming and persuasive pioneers. (Ronald E. Riggio, 2012) King utilized his appeal to help change a country comprehends of equivalent rights across racial lines. Gandhi utilized his appeal to stand up openly on human rights segregation and entrancing groups with his enthusiasm. Churchill utilized his endowment of mystique to motivate individuals to tail him by failing to back down from a battle that you put stock in. (McManus) Characteristics of a Charismatic Leader Charismatic pioneers are known to pull in adherents and motivate individuals higher than ever (Basu). Drawing in supporters and motivating individuals takes a specific kind of character or certain attributes. Individuals just don’t follow any single individual. Something attracts individuals and once in these individuals can be propelled to get things done. A few people, similar to Charles Manson, attracted devotees and motivated them to kill; while a few people, similar to Gandhi, attracted adherents and enlivened them to be better individuals. (Basu), (Rosenberg, Charles Manson), (Rosenberg, Gandhi-Biography of Mahatma Gandhi) Manson and Gandhi had certain qualities that attracted individuals to them the primary spot. These may have included development, relational abilities, lowliness, and substance. Different characteristics incorporate driving as well as being preferred, thinking about others before thinking about your, commending life and moving eagerness, seeing the best in individuals and diverting it, managing in expectation and spreading the treats (Alain, 2011). Charming pioneers don't really have these characteristics yet these eventual what to search for while picking an appealling pioneer. (Alain, 2011) Charismatic pioneers should be adult. This doesn't allude to age. This development is a development of shrewdness over years through experience. This shrewdness can be ready to go or it very well may be in whatever territory the individual exceeds expectations. Manson, for instance, realized how to attract ladies and utilized that information to begin a faction. (Basu), (Rosenberg, Charles Manson) Communication is a key trademark. Pioneers must have the option to spur their adherents and offer data and subtleties. This comes through incredible relational abilities. Realizing how to address a gathering and how to make troublesome data straightforward permits a leader’s devotees to recognize what to do and how to do the game plan. Relational abilities likewise help the pioneer to motivate his supporters. Gandhi had extraordinary relational abilities and roused many, numerous supporters. (Basu), (Rosenberg, Gandhi-Biography of Mahatma Gandhi) Humility is another trademark a magnetic pioneer has. A few people don't feel lowliness and appeal can coincide yet they can. Modesty comes when a pioneer tunes in to the worries of their adherents. They persuade their adherents the estimation of their commitments in satisfying the drawn out objectives and interests. This modesty rouses devotees to become steadfast which is fundamental to the endurance of the gathering (Basu). The last trademark a charming pioneer must have is substance. A magnetic pioneer can't simply depend on streak for long. Adherents need substance. They need something enduring. The leader’s activities must match his words (Basu). Anything a pioneer says must remain in the brain of his devotees. Without enduring effect the pioneer will bomb in keeping his adherents. In business this is significant in light of the fact that, albeit, streak got you in the entryway, the substance will make sure about and keep the deal. (Basu) An appealling pioneer additionally should be enjoyed, he can't simply lead. John F. Kennedy was an amiable pioneer. He didn't utilize animal power however attracted individuals to him through his activities. This made his adherents readily acknowledge him and become steadfast constituents who casted a ballot him into a Senate seat and afterward the administration. (John F. Kennedy) A magnetic pioneer must place the government assistance of others over him. This was a characteristic of Gandhi. He yielded things throughout his life so as to help better others. He got a wide after of individuals and his ways are as yet being utilized today. (Rosenberg, Gandhi-Biography of Mahatma Gandhi) A magnetic pioneer must motivate eagerness and commend life. This festival of life and excitement in doing all things moves others to follow. This festival is done in any event, for the littlest minutes (Alain, 2011). It is just a fundamental brain science of glad individuals will pull in other cheerful individuals (Alain, 2011). Magnetic pioneers must see the best in their adherents and channel it. Indicating thankfulness for the capability of others is a key factor on picking up and keeping adherents. This likewise causes the adherents to stay faithful to the pioneer. This is significant in business. The representatives or colleagues must work solidly and bolster their chief or group pioneer completely all together for the shared objective to be accomplished. That objective is achievement. (Alain, 2011) Napoleon Bonaparte said â€Å"Leaders are sellers in hope† (Alain, 2011). Being idealistic is an extraordinary quality for the magnetic pioneer. This idealism and expectation shows adherents their pioneer trusts in them and emphatically underpins them. This positive thinking additionally assists adherents with knowing their fantasies and objectives are an attainable reality. (Alain, 2011) The last quality a charming pioneer ought to have is figuring out how to spread the treats. The alluring pioneer has a great deal of qualities, encounters, aptitudes and information (Alain, 2011). Sharing these with supporters, representatives and associates permits them to feel a significant piece of the reason. This sharing likewise tells the supporters the pioneer isn't out only for himself however in the accomplishment of everybody included. (Alain, 2011) Being an appealling pioneer doesn't mean every individual has these attributes or uses them for the better great. We have seen all through time some magnetic pioneers who have utilized these qualities to just satisfy their desires. Two of these were Hitler and Manson. Others have utilized these qualities to benefit everybody and their initiative is still felt today. Two of these were Gandhi and JFK. Each appealling pioneer should utilize his capacity for the better great of all included yet devotees should be savvy enough to know when the pioneer veers off base and do not follow anymore yet attempt and lead. (Alain, 2011) Pros and Cons Everything in life has its â€Å"pros and cons†. It doesn’t matter in the event that one is a supporter or a pioneer. There are huge numbers of sorts of pioneers out there. In any case, it doesn’t matter what sort of pioneer they are, there will consistently be advantages and disadvantages. Contingent upon the kind of pioneer that individual is the thing that will reflect it. Take a magnetic pioneer for instance, and think about all the past pioneers who had these qualities and consider their professionals and their cons. Before we really expound on that, we should initially know the characteristics of that kind of pioneer. The most straightforward approach to depict a charming pioneer is that of a pioneer who is regularly thought of as â€Å"heroes that can utilize their own appeal to lead others†. This is accomplished by driving with exclusive requirements, demonstrating certainty, and passing on everything through their helpful talks. Something else is to help advocate moral strategic vision; this faces challenge to accomplish their essential goal. With each one of those traits consolidated is a formula for an appeal that â€Å"can be both a gift and a revile on society†. (Jamal, 2012) With the ability to convince individuals in a center gathering of society, the pioneer goal is for the most part to utilize capacity to serve others. By and large they attempt to show others how its done; to help mentor and create others, and thus they share acknowledgment with their adherents. This prompts the adherents to think autonomously and to scrutinize the leader’s sees. At long last it depends on â€Å"internal moral norms to fulfill authoritative and cultural interests†. All these intrigue are typically straight forward and abandons no uncertainty. Subsequently these traits are a â€Å"pro† for the magnetic pioneer. (Sims, 1994) There is a familiar adage, on the off chance that you need something terrible enough, you can have it. Unfortun

Perspectives on the Relationship between Dolphins and Humans Essay

Viewpoints on the Relationship among Dolphins and Humans - Essay Example Dolphins are seen as partners to individuals, their activities apparently non-undermining and their inspirations giving off an impression of being determined to being useful. In any case, it is muddled that the coalition that dolphins feel towards individuals is sufficiently appeared in response towards the dolphins. The accompanying investigation will give a structure to contemplating the discernments that people have concerning their associations with dolphins. As a result of their high knowledge there is some theory that they ought to be considered ‘persons’. White characterizes ‘human’ as a logical order with ‘person’ being a philosophical idea that can without much of a stretch be moved onto the dolphin species. The essential motivations to consider dolphins as ‘persons’ is to give them rights. White keeps on portraying the philosophical establishment for considering dolphins ‘persons’ through the reality of their high insight and in that in view of this knowledge, they ought to have the advantage of rights. The issue in crediting rights to another species is that it would struggle with the human conviction that they are the focal point of the world and the production of that world. People accept that everything inside the world are there to support mankind. White expresses that â€Å"the presence of nonhuman people would contradict everything our species has accepted abou t its uniqueness for a great many years†.

Local Churches Provide Alternatives to Louisiana Payday Loans - OppLoans

Local Churches Provide Alternatives to Louisiana Payday Loans - OppLoans Local Churches Provide Alternatives  to Louisiana Payday LoansInside Subprime:  May 6, 2019By Lindsay FrankelIn 2013, a group of churches in Shreveport came together to combat a problem impacting residents of the Highland neighborhood: Financially desperate people were turning to payday loans, which have high interest rates that only exacerbate financial hardship. The results was a program called Hand Up.One of our church members was noticing how many payday loan places were here in the neighborhood, said John Henson, Pastor at Church for the Highlands. Just looking within a mile radius of this building there were 12 businesses that he counted.Highland Center Ministries, a coalition of 14 churches, worked with Pelican State Credit Union to issue the loans to people in need. And the loans provided are a much safer, more affordable alternative to payday loans. People can take out loans with fixed interest rates under 10 percent and use an ATM with relatively low fees. As part of the pr ogram, borrowers also work with credit counselors to plan a budget for repayment.Since the Hand Up loan program was established, it has assisted more than 80 people in accessing $130,000 in low-interest credit. One of the borrowers was Clydel Hall, a homeless veteran who couldn’t get to work without transportation. After taking out a $2,500 loan from the Hand Up program, Hall was able to find financial stability. He now receives steady income from two jobs and owns a home and two cars.What we do is work together to provide good, effective alternatives, where they can be involved in something that is going to build their credit and build their lives, said Henson.The average APR on Louisiana payday loans is 435 percent, according to data from Pew Charitable Trusts. These predatory loans are advertised as quick-fix solutions to help people manage emergency expenses, but most people can’t afford to pay them back with interest in the time allotted. The Consumer Financial Protection B ureau found that about 80 percent of these loans get renewed or rolled over, leading to an insurmountable cycle of debt.Payday loan firms cluster in low-income areas of Louisiana, targeting the most vulnerable people. The churches hoped that providing an alternative to payday loans would help the working poor escape or avoid the debt trap. Jews, Muslims, Christians, this is part of our scripture that usury is wrong and it is a sin, Henson said. It is wrong to hold people who are vulnerable to this kind of debt.Highland Center Ministries, a coalition of 14 churches, worked with a credit union to issue the loans to people in need. And the loans provided are a much safer, more affordable alternative to payday loans. People can take out loans with fixed interest rates under 10 percent and use an ATM with relatively low fees. As part of the program, borrowers also work with credit counselors to plan a budget for repayment. The money that comes in from them repaying the loan goes back int o the pot to help other people who are in need, said Henson.The loans have even helped people like Debbie Posey, who had no credit history, build enough credit to be able to borrow from traditional lending sources. For many residents of the Highland neighborhood, the Hand Up program has provided a lifeline.Learn more about payday loans, scams, and cash advances, and check out our city and state financial guides, including Chicago,  Florida, Illinois,  Texas and more.Visit  OppLoans  on  YouTube  |  Facebook  |  Twitter  |  LinkedIn

Collective Behavior - Definition of Term

Definition: Collective behavior is a type of social behavior that occurs in crowds or masses. Riots, mobs, mass hysteria, fads, fashions, rumor, and public opinion are all examples of collective behavior. It is argued that people tend to surrender their individuality and moral judgment in crowds and give in to the hypnotic powers of leaders who shape crowd behavior as they like.

President Washington s First Inaugural Address - 957 Words

From the first president George Washington to the thirty-second president Franklin Delano Roosevelt, inaugural addresses have transformed from God-filled, hopeful speeches to pleas to the nation. Washington gives a humble address, and makes many references to God to the nation assuring them that if they have faith in God, they will have faith in him, he makes it obvious to the people he’s not pleading to them for help. FDR on the other hand establishes his ethos immediately by gaining the trust of the nation, and also pleads to the people to lure them in on the subject of unemployment. Both presidents use biblical allusions to appeal to the people in their addresses. President Washington’s first inaugural address is essential to the nation, because it is the first official words spoken by an Untied States president. Since Washington is the first president there is no formal requirement to give an inaugural address, but Washington felt the need to do so. Washington being s his speech with a genuine explanation of how deeply honored he is to be bestowed with such an honor. Washington continues by explaining to America the reservations that he has that he is to perform as a lower being to the â€Å"grateful remembrance of former instances† thus referring to God. He excuses himself as it would be â€Å"improper to omit† the â€Å"Almighty Being who rules over the universe† and who is ubiquitous among every person in American. Washington proceeds to explain that it is the role of God, notShow MoreRelatedPresident John F. Kennedy Inaugural Address1532 Words   |  7 PagesGeorge Washington, March 4, 1861 Abraham Lincoln, January 21, 2013 Barack Obama, and April 20, 1961 John F. Kennedy. What do all these dates and names have in common is a question you may ask. One is that each name is of one of the many presidents of the United States. Two is the dates are the dates of each ones Inaugural address. The first ever Inaugural address w as done April 30, 1789 by none other than the United States first president George Washington. Many have heard and Inaugural address butRead MoreThe Legacy Of Abraham Lincoln850 Words   |  4 Pagesamateur he wanted to make his mark. In 1861, Abraham Lincoln became the sixteenth president of the United States; he rose to become one of the greatest presidents. As President, he built the Republican Party into a powerful national organization. In addition, he massed most of the northern Democrats to the Union cause. During his attempt to keep the Union in the Civil War, he gained more power and authority than any president before him. He preserved the Union, strengthened the federal government, modernizedRead MoreAbraham Lincoln And The Civil War1095 Words   |  5 PagesIn 1861 Abraham Lincoln became the sixteen president of the United States. He had the Proclamation of declaring forever to free slaves within the Confederacy in the year 1863. 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The speech was written by Jonathan Favreau. In an inaugural address, Obama touched upon several important issues; immigration, gender equality, and economic reforms and left behind the message that unity is our nation’s ultimate strengthRead MoreAccomplishments And Failures Of George Washington1738 Words   |  7 PagesApril 2017 Many Triumphs and Failures of George Washington. George Washington had enormous amounts of failures, but he had achieved great things as well. From being a young boy living in Pope’s Creek, Virginia to becoming the president of the United States. He has faced a lot of hardships and failures. But through all of his hardships throughout his life he has become the greatest president of the United States, George Washington. George Washington had early influences as a child. His childhoodRead MoreLaunching The Presidency. Dr. Kristen Coopie Allen. 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In his speech, he starts off with saying that his victory is not for a party but it is for freedom. At the climax of his speech, JFK delivers a call to action which is also the most well-known line from his speech:Read MoreLincoln s Representation Of Lincoln1640 Words   |  7 Pagesmovies have a dominant clout on how Lincoln’s images has been established in American popular culture. Movies such as Birth of a Nation, Young Mr. Lincoln, Abe Lincoln in Illinois, and Lincoln have given audiences different glimpses of the sixteenth president. The legend of Lincoln has been created and altered in film in oder to create a hero to fit the times. This paper will focus on â€Å"Lincoln† films over a 100 year time plan from Birth of a Nation to Lincoln. This research will also show how and why

Is There Such a Thing as Two Brains - 807 Words

Is There Such a Thing as Two Brains? The human brain has always been a mystery. For many years researchers and scientists have ventured into the daunting task of understanding how the brain works. Even though they have accomplished to unearth new ideas and theories there is still an overwhelming abyss of the unknown. There is one theory that stands out the most from all others known as the right brain-left brain theory which originated from the work of Roger W. Sperry and who was awarded with the Nobel Prize in 1981. Since then there have been scientific research that suggest that the brain for the most part works as a whole rather than independently divided by two hemispheres. With all of these new discoveries emerging everyday†¦show more content†¦In the past many educational organizations have had their curriculums evolve around a logical approach to teaching and in a way alienating the right-brain dominant student. Just because the professor teaches the opposite way doesn’t mean the student wil l be unsuccessful. (Leesmann, 2012) However it is safe to say that currently they have incorporated more strategies to benefit the right-brain dominant student. But is it beneficial only to the right-brain or could the left-brain also benefit from this? Could this cause the brain to evolve and thus cause both hemispheres to communicate amongst each other more? Webb (1983) asked the question â€Å"Are the hemispheres trying to create a balance with each other?† (p. 511). According to Pritchard (2008) yes, some functions are shared, in the case of language there are matched areas in both sides of the brain, but their functions are slightly different. (p. 89). A research by the American Psychological Association (2004) has also shown that in subjects such as math the brain is stronger if both halves work together. As educators continue to find new ways to incorporate the use of both hemispheres simultaneously the more the brain will be considered as one entity. There will come a time in which the division of the brain will merely be physical and not educational. Pritchard (2008) resumed it best; the almost infinite complexity of theShow MoreRelatedDevelopment Of Brain Interfacing Devices1426 Words   |  6 Pagesdevelopment of brain interfacing devices. Brain interfacing has been used with computers, animals, and other human bein gs. Harvard and researchers Pais-Vieira and Miguel were both successful in creating a brain interfacing device that could control the movements of lab rates. Scientist have managed to create devices that can manipulate the thoughts and movements of other human beings. Brain interfacing is when scientist use computers to communicate and manipulate other living things. 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He believed that because he is a thing that thinks, then he must have some kind of consciousness or awareness of the world. Because he has consciousness, he reasons that he must exist, especially since he is aware that he is a thing that thinks. His physical body, on the other hand, has no awareness. From this stems another critical part of his philosophy which states that the mind and the body are two separate substances. This concept is called dualism. Minds are indestructible

Women battered Essay Example For Students

Women battered Essay In a conversation with my girlfriend about battered women, she said, Id never put up with that and then asked, Why would a woman stay in an abusive relationship? As relationships progress, there are more emotional and financial ties which makes it harder to leave. The average woman will leave her abuser seven or eight times before making the final break. Women may be afraid of strangers, but it is a husband, a lover, a boyfriend, or someone they know who is most likely to harm them. According to a U.S. Justice Department study, someone the woman knows commits two-thirds of violent attacks against women. In the United States, the most dangerous place for a woman is in her own home, where anger may explode into violence. Even though lower-class women have more recorded statistics on being battered, middle and upper-class women are also having to fight these same battles. However, fear of social embarrassment, harming their husbands standing in the community, and, most importantly, fear of not being believed cause middle and upper-class women to keep quiet. According to the FBI, there are approximately 1,500 women killed by husbands or boyfriends each year and there are about 2 million men who beat their partners each year. Furthermore, the FBI also states that domestic violence is the leading cause of injury to women ages 15-45, more than rapes, muggings, and automobile accidents combined. Statistics on battered women are inaccurate, partially because of poor reporting techniques; women are afraid to come forth and usually there is no witness present. In order to help better define battered womens syndrome, the origins and development of the three primary theories of the syndrome and recommended treatments are outlined below. The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-IV), known in the mental health field as the clinicians bible, does not recognize battered womens syndrome as a distinct mental disorder. In fact, Dr. Lenore Walker, the architect of the classical battered womens syndrome theory, notes the syndrome is not an illness, but rather a theory that draws upon the principles of learned helplessness to explain why some women are unable to leave their abusers. Therefore, the classical battered womens syndrome theory is best regarded as an offshoot of the theory of learned helplessness and not a mental illness that afflicts abused women. The theory of learned helplessness sought to account for the passive behavior subjects exhibited when placed in an uncontrollable environment. In the late 1960s and early 1970s, Martin Seligman, a famous researcher in the field of psychology, conducted a series of experiments in which dogs were placed in one of two types of cages. In the former cage, henceforth referred to as the shock cage, a bell would sound and the experimenters would electrify the entire floor seconds later, shocking the dog regardless of location. The latter cage, however, although similar in every other respect to the shock cage, contained a small area where the experimenters could administer no shock. Seligman observed that while the dogs in the latter cage learned to run to the non-electrified area after a series of shocks, the dogs in the shock cage gave up trying to escape, even when placed in the latter cage and shown that escape was possible. Seligman theorized that the dogs initial experience in the uncontrollable shock cage led them to believe that they could not control future events and was responsible for the observed disruptions in behavior and learning. Thus, according to the theory of learned helplessness, a subject placed in an uncontrollable environment will become passive and accept painful stimuli, even though escape is possible and apparent. In the late 1970s, Dr. Walker drew upon Seligmans research and incorporated it into her own theory, the battered womens syndrome, in an attempt to explain why battered women remain with their abusers. According to Dr. Walker, battered womens syndrome contains two distinct elements: a cycle of violence and symptoms of learned helplessness. The cycle of violence is composed of three phases (illustrated below): the tension building phase, the violence phase, and the seduction phase. This also illustrates how three dynamics, love, hope, and fear, keep the cycle in motion and make it hard to end a violent relationship. During the tension building phase, the victim is subjected to verbal abuse and minor battering incidents, such as slaps, pinches and psychological abuse. In this phase, the woman tries to pacify her batterer by using techniques that have worked previously. Typically, the woman showers her abuser with kindness or attempts to avoid him. However, the victims attempts to pacify her batter are often futile and only work to delay the inevitable acute battering incident. The tension building phase ends and the violence phase begins when the verbal abuse and minor battering evolve into an acute battering incident. A release of the tensions built during phase one characterizes the violence phase, which usually last for a period of two to twenty-four hours. The violence during this phase is unpredictable and inevitable, and statistics indicate that the risk of the batterer murdering his victim is at its greatest. The batterer places his victim in a constant state of fear, and she is unable to control her batterers violence by utilizing techniques that worked in the tension building phase. The victim, realizing her lack of control, attempts to lessen the violence by becoming passive. After the violence phase comes to a close, the cycle of violence enters the seduction or honeymoon phase. During this phase, the batterer apologizes for his abusive behavior and promises that it will never happen again. The behavior exhibited by the batter in the seduction phase closely resembles the behavior he exhibited when the couple first met and fell in love. The seduction phase is the most psychologically victimizing phase because the batterer fools the victim, who is relieved that the abuse has ended, into believing that he has changed. However, inevitably, the batterer begins to verbally abuse his victim and the cycle of abuse begins anew. According to Dr. Walker, Seligmans theory of learned helplessness explains why women stay with their abusers and occurs in a victim after the cycle of violence repeats numerous times. Dr. Walker asserts that, In the domestic abuse ambit, sporadic brutality, perceptions of powerlessness, lack of financial resources, and the superior strength of the batterer all combine to instill a feeling of helplessness in the victim. In other words, batterers condition women into believing that they are powerless to escape by subjecting them to a continuing pattern of uncontrollable violence and abuse. Dr. Walker, in applying the learned helplessness theory to battered women, changed societys perception of battered women by dispelling the myth that battered women like abuse and offering a logical and rationale explanation for why most stay with their abuser. As the classical theory of battered womens syndrome is based upon the psychological principles of conditioning, experts believe that behavior modification strategies are best suited for treating women suffering from the syndrome. This wheel (illustrated below) depicts relationships as a whole and how each seemingly unrelated behavior is an important part in an overall effort to control someone. A simple, yet effective, behavioral strategy to this consists of two stages. In the initial stage, the battered woman removes herself from the uncontrollable or shock cage environment and isolates herself from her abuser. Generally, professionals help the victim escape by using assertiveness training, modeling, and recommending use of the court system. After the woman terminates the abusive relationship, professionals give the victim relapse prevention training to ensure that subsequent exposure to abusive behavior will not cause maladaptive behavior. Although this strategy is effective, the model offered by Dr. Walker suggests that battered women usually do not actively seek out help. How to Write Literary Analysis Essay The authors of the early and present theory of post traumatic stress disorder considered a traumatic event to be outside the range of human experience. Such events included rape, torture, war, the Holocaust, the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, earthquakes, hurricanes, volcanoes, airplane crashes, and automobile accidents, but did not contemplate applying the diagnosis to battered women. Presently, the traumatic event need only be markedly distressing to almost anyone. Therefore, battered women have little trouble meeting the DSM-IV traumatic event diagnostic requirement because most people would find the abuse battered women are subjected to markedly distressing. In addition to meeting the traumatic event diagnostic criteria, an individual must have symptoms from the intrusive recollection, avoidant/numbing, and hyper arousal categories for a post traumatic stress disorder diagnosis to apply. The intrusive recollection category consists of symptoms that are distinct and easily identifiable. In individuals suffering from post traumatic stress disorder, the traumatic event is a dominant psychological experience that seemingly would evoke panic, terror, dread, grief, and/or despair. Often, these feelings are manifested in daytime fantasies, traumatic nightmares, and flashbacks. Additionally, stimuli that the individual associates with the traumatic event can evoke mental images, emotional responses, and psychological reactions associated with the trauma. Examples of intrusive recollection symptoms a battered woman may suffer are fantasies of killing her batterer and flashbacks of battering incidents. The avoidant/numbing cluster consists of emotional strategies individuals with post traumatic stress disorder use to reduce the likelihood that they will either expose themselves to traumatic stimuli, or if exposed, will minimize their psychological response. The DSM-IV divides the strategies into three categories: behavioral, cognitive, and emotional. Behavioral strategies include avoiding situations where the stimuli are likely to be encountered. Cognitive strategies include amnesia by which individuals with post traumatic stress disorder cut off the conscious experience of trauma-based memories and feelings. Lastly, the individual may separate the cognitive aspects from the emotional aspects of psychological experience and perceive only the former. This type of psychic numbing serves as an emotional anesthesia that makes it extremely difficult for people with post traumatic stress disorder to participate in meaningful interpersonal relationships. Thus, a battered woman suffering from post traumatic stress disorder may avoid her batterer and repress trauma-based feelings and emotions. The hyper arousal category symptoms closely resemble those seen in panic and generalized anxiety disorders. Although symptoms such as insomnia and irritability are generic anxiety symptoms, hyper vigilance, and startle are unique to post traumatic stress disorder. The hyper vigilance symptom may become so intense in individuals suffering from post traumatic stress disorder that it appears as if they are paranoid. A careful reading of post traumatic stress disorder symptoms and diagnostic criteria indicates that Dr. Walkers classical theory of battered womens syndrome is contained within. For instance, both theories require that the victim be exposed to a traumatic event. In Dr. Walkers theory, she describes the traumatic event as a cycle of violence. The post traumatic stress disorder theory, on the other hand, only requires that the event be markedly distressing to almost everyone. Thus, the cycle of violence described by Dr. Walker is considered a traumatic stressor for the purposes of diagnosing post traumatic stress disorder. Additionally, like the classical theory of battered womens syndrome, the theory of post traumatic stress disorder recognizes that an individual may become helpless after exposure to a traumatic event. Although the post traumatic stress disorder theory seems to incorporate Dr. Walkers theory, it is more inclusive in that it recognizes that different individuals may have different reactions to traumatic events. Furthermore, it does not rely heavily on the theory of learned helplessness to explain why battered women stay with their abusers. There are several methods a professional can utilize to treat individuals suffering from post traumatic stress disorder. The most successful treatments are those that they administer immediately after the traumatic event. An expert would commonly call this type of treatment critical incident stress debriefing. Although this type of treatment is effective in halting the development of post traumatic stress disorder, the cyclical nature and gradual escalation of violence in domestic abuse situations make critical incident stress debriefing an unlikely therapy for battered women. The second type of treatment is administered after post traumatic stress disorder has developed and is less effective than critical incident stress debriefing. This type of treatment may consist of psychodynamic psychotherapy, behavioral therapy, pharmacotherapy, and group therapy. The most effective post-manifestation treatment for battered women is group therapy. In a group therapy session, battered women can discuss traumatic memories, post traumatic stress disorder symptoms, and functional deficits with others that have had similar experiences. By discussing their experiences and symptoms, the women form a common bond and release repressed memories, feelings, and emotions. To summarize, many experts regard battered womens syndrome as a subcategory of post traumatic stress disorder. The diagnostic criteria for post traumatic stress disorder include a history of exposure to a traumatic event and symptoms from each of three symptom clusters: intrusive recollections, avoidant/numbing symptoms, and hyper arousal symptoms. After exposure to a traumatic event, defined as one that is markedly distressing to almost everyone, an individual suffering from post traumatic stress disorder may suffer intrusive recollections, which consist of daytime fantasies, traumatic nightmares, and flashbacks. The individual may also try to avoid stimuli that remind them of the traumatic event and/or develop symptoms associated with generic anxiety disorders. Critical incident stress debriefing, psychodynamic psychotherapy, behavioral therapy, pharmaco therapy, and group therapy are all recognized as effective treatments for post traumatic stress disorder. Feminists have come up with theories in regards to why women do not leave their abuser: they cannot support themselves and their children, they are isolated from friends and family, and they have been terrorized into a state of helplessness by repeated beatings. It is also important to note that battered women usually do not have any place to go. There are half as many shelters for battered women in this country as there are for stray animals, and most do not accept children. For every two women sheltered, five are turned away; for every two children sheltered, eight are turned away. This equates to half of all homeless women and children being on the streets due to violence in the home. Although there are many different theories of battered womens syndrome, most are all variations or hybrids of the three main theories outlined above. A sound understanding of Dr. Walkers classical battered womens syndrome theory is found in Gondolf and Fishers survivor theory of battered womens syndrome and the post traumatic stress disorder theory. This permits the reader to identify the origins and essential elements of these various hybrids and provide them with a better understanding of the plight of the battered woman. Given the prevalence of domestic abuse in our society, it is important to realize that the battered woman does not like abuse or is responsible for her victimization. The three theories discussed above all offer rationale explanations for why a battered women often stays with her abuser and explore the psychological harm caused by abuse while discounting the popular perception that battered women must enjoy the abuseBibliography:

Indus Valley Civilization an Example by

Indus Valley Civilization Indus Valley Civilization was habitat to one of the greatest ancient civilizations. It was not discovered until the 1920's. The major dilemma with the study of Indus valley civilization is lack of historical data and written material about the civilization. Furthermore, the urban ruin of this civilization, Mohenjo Daro and Harappa, are located in regions where political and security turmoil do not encourage the scholars the visit the sites and study. Need essay sample on "Indus Valley Civilization" topic? We will write a custom essay sample specifically for you Proceed Undergraduates Usually Tell EssayLab specialists:Who wants to write essay for me?Specialists advise: Ask Us To Write My Paper And Get Professional HelpEssay Helper Website Cheap Writing Service Reviews Best Essay Writing Service Best Student Essay Writing Company One of the major problems with studying the Indus civilization is that its script found on various tablets from Moenjo Daro and Harrapa can not be deciphered yet. David Diringer remarks in this regard that "it seems obvious that the Indus Valley script which is rather schematic and linear on the extant inscriptions was originally pictographic but it is impossible to decide whether it was truly indigenous or imported". (Diringer, p.85) It clearly manifest that decipherment of Indus valley script is intricate as it an unidentified language in an unidentified script. So socio-cultural aspects of this civilization are still known and what is understood is a guess manifested by the tablets, pottery and structural design of the cities. Additionally most of Indus civilization ruins scattered in various parts of Indian subcontinent, even its major cities, remain to be excavated. Due to lack of historical data, most of the ruins are still to be discovered. The first discovery, of Harappa ruins, was also accidental as Charles Masson considered it Sangala, capital of Raja Porus, in his Narrative of Various Journeys in Balochistan, Afghanistan and Punjab, 1826-1838, (Dani, 1997) but its true nature and significance was not realized until much later. Due to these problems, it is difficult for scholar to study Indus Valley Civilization at an intensive and extensive level. References Diringer, David. The Alphabet: a key to the history of mankind. New Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers, 1996. Dani. Ahmad Hasan. Indian Palaeography. New Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal, 1997.

Measurement and Assessment in Teaching Essays

Measurement and Assessment in Teaching Essays Measurement and Assessment in Teaching Essay Measurement and Assessment in Teaching Essay Once lading has been packaged it must undergo standard cheques at the review offices for goods come ining or populating the state through assorted transporting methods. The most acceptable measuring and review methods for the lading are the trying method. This method is preferred because it cares for both the quality of the merchandises and entire review cost. The method is by and large seasonably. cost effectual. The international criterions of inspecting lading universally agree on the usage of trying method to cut down the cost of review. if it were to be done on individual entities. More so. there are set criterions and degrees of specifications on the maximal mistakes allowed for a merchandise packaging. ( Hunt. 1989 ) . There are limited degrees of defects and fluctuation for the quality of merchandise. A bundle should non transcend the maximal mistakes allowed. If the degree is exceeded so the merchandise or lading is rendered unworthy and can non be delivered to the proprietors due to the defects that compromise the quality of the merchandise. The lading at this point is said to hold failed the review as per the set codification of criterions ; ISO 2859. review must follow the set criterions regardless of whether the client petition for specific trials or non. Clients are allowed to do specific trial petitions at will before the review begins. otherwise review will be done as stipulated. The set criterions for international review must be adhered to by the trial hearers and inspectors. Industrial criterions that are lawfully accepted include NFK06-021/022. ANSI/ASQC Z1. 4-1993. ISO2859 ( AQL Tables ) . DIN40. 080. ISO 14000. SA 8000. ANSI/ASQC Z1. 4/BS6001 and MIL-STD-105E/ ABC-STD 105. Each of these criterions has its ain specification for which industry merchandises must hold before they are packaged. The regulation is that the criterions must run into the societal answerability and legal criterions. When the trade goods are found to incorporate any defect they may farther be classified as critical. major. or minor depending on the degree of taint or the defect. Critical defect is risky for human ingestion or it is bound to do injury to the product’ consumer. This affects the functionality of the intended usage of the merchandise. When this sort of defect is detected it must be corrected. The merchandise is non consumable under all fortunes and therefore it can non be shipped. It must be refined or discarded wholly to avoid insecure usage of the merchandise. ( Dangerous Cargo Handling. 2008 ) . On the other manus. major defects are those that may ensue in the intervention of marketability of a merchandise though non harmful in usage. It may negatively impact the functionality of the merchandise if uncorrected. Most clients may bespeak for replacing if they are sold to these merchandises. Minor defects entail the handiness of foregone substances in the trade good such that they do non impact the functionality of the merchandise negatively. It is expected that when this merchandise is brought to the market it may fulfill bulk demands. There are three different degrees of review used in the international lading review. They are the general review degrees ; general review degree I. general review degree II. general review degree III. The most normally used review degree is the general review degree II. which takes audit and quality trials on the merchandise. There is a 4th class of review called the Particular review degree which is used for wider scope of samples to extinguish more hazards. It is used to prove merchandises that are suspected to be unsafe. General review degree I is used for merchandises that need less attending. it is for basic trials. General review degree III is used for most discriminatory demands on the trial samples. It uses technology rules of proving the products’ quality. General review degree III is clip devouring and expensive though it can be used for riddance of big hazard degrees. 2 ) Interpreting the legal demands in relation to the passenger car of unsafe goods. present really different challenges for good appraisal and rating The definition of unsafe lading as stipulated by the international maritime jurisprudence entails all substances or ladings that may harm the ship. the passenger car. and other lading that may be on board. Dangerous lading handling required forte and expertness to avoid risky events that may bechance a passenger car. There are illustrations of recent events of unsafe lading harming the passenger car. For case. instance affecting major container ship topic in which. MSC Napoli caused existent devastation and pollution to the England’s South Coast. The passenger car was beached on a natural beauty scene at the Coast yet on board was unsafe lading worth million dollars. It had on board. 1700 dozenss risky ladings whose cost is over $ 100 million. All these went in to waste and caused more devastation to the environment. ( Bergendorff. S. 1998 ) . Poor containerization causes danger to many casualties. Massive detonations and fire effusions are common with improper handling and outlawed processs in unsafe lading passenger car. The international community has formulated Torahs and codification of moralss sing the international transit system in which Torahs sing handling of unsafe ladings have been clearly set out. This is aimed at minimising or controling hapless handling and packaging of lading at the terminuss. This has in the past resulted in amendss deserving one million millions of money hence low economic growing and hapless environmental preservation. The International Maritime Dangerous Goods Code. the IMDG Code. is a preparation of codifications of safety that must be adhered to by any forces managing unsafe lading within the international community. UAE. ( IMDG. 2007 ) . This jurisprudence is designed in conformity to the UAE international convention of 1974 in which signers were signed for Safety of Life At Sea. SOLAS. UAE maritime codification has the proviso for the bearer to destruct or take any unsafe lading if it deems necessary. For case. if the lading proprietor would worsen ownership incase of bad luck or if there were no proper understandings for international transmanship moralss. This lading may be destroyed without compensation. Dangerous lading may include explosives or extremely inflammable. This is harmonizing the Article 271. In add-on. unsafe lading that has been loaded with proper audience from the bearer. and it becomes a menace to the passenger car so it can be destroyed without incrimination on the bearer. More over. when goods which are non needfully unsafe are packed in the passenger car and are non decently declared on the measure of ladling are discovered on board. they can be jettisoned to avoid harm or mulcts on the lading on board. This is farther aggravated by the status of the goods ; if the goods are lawfully prohibited for sale or export. they must be destroyed or offloaded from the lading theodolite. Harmonizing to the jurisprudence. the shipper is held responsible for any abnormality on goods he delivers that are reflected in the measure of ladling. ( Government of Alberta. 2010 ) . In other words. the shipper is responsible for giving the right information on transportation specifics and will be answerable for any harm on the lading on board or the passenger car itself. unless he gives a timely notice on any sort of abnormality. The jurisprudence requires a shipper to transport merely those goods that they have a clear consent of their degree of toxicity and nature for which the bearer is defined. Third party who may fall victim of harm caused unsafe lading. harmonizing to UEA jurisprudence of 1985. Article 282 the civil Code shall keep the shipper responsible. This enables the shipper to guarantee that they cross look into their lading and guarantee that they transport merely the needed lading. The shipper must guarantee he does non transport wrongly described goods. since any harm caused to the lading shall be charged on him. The jurisprudence has environmental jurisprudence clause refering the protection for environment. This is found within the federal Torahs of UEA of 1999. Protection and development of the Environment. Harmonizing to this jurisprudence. skips or Acts of the Apostless that threaten the environment are punishable by the jurisprudence. ( Ziegler A. 2009 ) . Condemnable Torahs are besides applicable in the instances where cargo of unsafe lading causes decease or hurt to individuals. The proprietor must guarantee that they are authorized by the jurisprudence to transact with the unsafe goods. In other words. international jurisprudence sing unsafe lading cargo must be adhered to. if at all individuals are to be free from incrimination in instance of danger ensuing from the cargo. The rule aim and larning instructional undertaking in both unsafe lading handling and appraisal is to guarantee that forces covering with cargo of different good have the basic cognition and practical application towards quality of services and safety of the sea. The preparation involves of import facets like pilotage. nautical Torahs. weather forecasting. and upwind prediction. watch-standing ; managing little boats and ship-handling. adorn operations and equipment. line managing and rope-work. communicating for canvass within the port. towing operations. unsafe lading handling. attending to exigencies. storage of lading. fire combat and sea and is survival accomplishments. The acquisition usher for lading handling is good designed with the aim of run intoing market demands of lading and droping of lading. It is pattern oriented with good characteristics of on-site preparation to guarantee advanced preparation for in service preparation and those who intend to fall in the cargo crew. ( Fox. N. 1997 ) . Another aim is to develop staff on high engineerings of lading appraisal and trial processs with the purpose advancing safety and security in lading handling. There are different rules of appraisal that must be adhered to when measuring lading. First is the type of lading to be shipped. the type of container or bundle required and legal certification of the passenger car. Environmental preservation principled should be taken in to account when measuring the lading and its bundle quality. Besides safety of both the ship or bearer and the people involved every bit good as security of other lading on board. Material labeling should be done conspicuously. Each type of lading has its specification for packaging and unafraid stuff to utilize while managing it. Assessment is based on the general specifications found on the cargo and statute law sing packaging and bringing of lading from different beginnings and finishs. For case. legislative demands set for different lading offer limitation to certain volumes and weights below which or above which the cargo should non be signed for theodolite. More over. the utilizations of packing stuff which can be recycled have become a demand for certain types of lading. If this is non done so the cargo may non be delivered to its finish. In add-on. environmentally friendly stuff is necessitating for packaging. Appraisal tests shall merely let theodolite of good packaged trade goods and palettes that meet the quality to be delivered for certain specifications. Packaging could be done on disposable or reclaimable bundles for environmental safety intents. ( Devusy. et. al 1998 ) . For case. reclaimable bundles may include burden bearer which include level wooden palettes. skeleton container palettes. liquid containers and cosmopolitan little burden bearer. The disposable packaging could include disposable palettes. disposable protective packaging. disposable liquid containers. disposable packing AIDSs. and composition boards that are disposable. It is besides required that the bundle be easy to clean if reclaimable. and easy to dispose if disposable. This packaging must be done in conformity to the environmental jurisprudence. In decision. cargo palette appraisal and trial processs followed International Maritime Dangerous Goods Code has defined the safety processs for packaging and transit of lading. Dangerous lading has its set Torahs and ordinance sing trial and appraisal of quality and nature of the merchandise. The jurisprudence requires those managing the lading to be careful with every measure of packaging. appraisal. certification. cargo and bringing. ( Batemen. et. Al. 2007 ) . It is required that environmental preservation is taken in to account since there are punishments associated with risky lading that affects the environment upon botching or improper appraisal and packaging processs. There are nonsubjective for developing those managing lading of different natures and features. Cargo features must be defined in footings of quality and any defects found on the lading must besides be categorized to guarantee corrections before repackaging. Generally. lading handling is secured under the international jurisprudence. Mentions Bergendorff. S. ( 1998 ) . The Sky Came Down: Social Motions and Personhood in Mekeo Society. Oceania. Vol. 69 Batemen. S. . Mathai. M. A ; Joshua Ho. ( 2007 ) . Transporting forms in the Malacca and Singapore Straits: An Appraisal of the Risks to Different Types of Vessel: Contemporary Southeast Asia. Vol. 29 Dangerous Cargo demands. lading. managing Dangerous Goods: retrieved in 2010: hypertext transfer protocol: //web2. gov. megabit. ca/laws/statutes/ccsm/d012e. php Dangerous Cargo Handling: retrieved in 29 October. 2008. hypertext transfer protocol: //adriamare. net/Training/courses/dangerous-cargo-handling/ Dangerous Cargo counsel Principally. Evergreen observes the IMDG. Retrieved on 01 July 2007: hypertext transfer protocol: //evergreen-marine. com/tbn1/html/DCGuidance. pdf Devusy. D. . Campton. P. . Hens. L. A ; Nath B. ( 1998 ) . Environmental Management in Practice ; Volume 1: Instruments for Environmental Management -Vol. 1. New York: Routledge. Fox. N. ( 1997 ) . Spoiled: The Dangerous Truth about a Food Chain Gone Haywire. U. S. Basic Books. Government of Alberta Ministry of conveyance: Dangerous Goods. Retrieve in 1995-2010. hypertext transfer protocol: //www. transit. Alberta. ca/519. htm Hunt. G. J. F. ( 1989 ) A Behavioral Approach to Instructional Design: A programmed Text. Plamerston North: Dunmore Press. Ziegler A. ( 2009 ) . The Liability of the Contracting Carrier. Texas International Law Journal. Vol. 44

Icons in the past and in the modern world Essay

Icons in the past and in the modern world - Essay Example bject that is easily identifiable by many. It may also mean a symbol that is used by different cultures to for purposes of historical value or having a known significance to such community or groups of communities. In the modern times however, icons of places are mostly represented by beautiful architectural buildings. Though past icons such as monuments, statues and historical buildings are still recognized as icons of different places, there is a rapid change in the way icons are perceived and this has been brought about by the construction of amazing pieces of architecture. This paradigm shift has been driven by the demand for popularity and instant fame as well as for business purposes. Different regions are now in competition with one another in the construction of stunning architectural buildings. This paper aims to detail and discuss the meaning and use of icons in the past and modern in the United Kingdom and give a comparison of the same. This will be done via researching th e major icons in the UK and detailing their use. The paper will also make a general conclusion of the history of the icons. Most specifically, the paper will focus on the bulky-Scottish Castle, the St. Pauls Cathedral, the Nelson Monument, and the small retail liver building. Background Information In the medieval times, icons were mostly represented by historical monuments and buildings. It also included paintings and carvings that were done on stones and caves by hunters or artists in the community. Such icons represented a particular history or symbol of power in the community. A good example of icons that represented symbols of power included palaces of the royal family in the kingdom. Buckingham palace in Great Britain is an example of such palace that was and still is home to the royal family. Religious shrines and buildings were also known icons in the past due to their revered status. Rome for example was a society that was deeply engulfed in religious practices and as such had several places of worship within the region (Lynch, 1960). Such places were known icons within and beyond the boundaries of Rome since they were not only revered by many, but also had influence on the political administration at that time. Great emphasis was also placed on the erection and curving of monuments and statues by several communities in the past. This was done to honour individuals for their great contribution to the society and as such, places where these monuments and statues were erected become known icons within the region both in the medieval times and up to date. From the twin towers in Malaysia to the Five Star hotel, Burj Al Arab in Dubai, the emphasis has been placed on tall and aesthetical pleasing building designs. Two dimensional form of art such as

The concept of science fiction in cinema Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

The concept of science fiction in cinema - Essay Example Additionally, all paths are never equal because the path completed last presupposes the other paths. The paths are also not equal given that the path completed last is the least hypothetical. The above rules of the game represent the salient features of cinematographic storytelling. According to Cornea, the forking-path movies are based on the seven forking-path conventions (170). The assertion that forking paths are clear is symbolic and it indicates that life is a risk because man is faced with diverse and unprecedented events on a daily basis. Some of the occurrences could end man’s life inadvertently. This notwithstanding, the movie, The Matrix movie, shows that it is possible for an incident to be analyzed to an extent that its proximate cause and the possible effect is established.2.The least compelling idea from the course reading is that scholars ought to spend long hours exploring a single idea instead of balancing on the tie top allocate to many phenomena in life. Th e tradition is flawed and must not be adopted by any learner because it is counterproductive in entirety. For instance, the film shows the significance of understanding much on eye behavior with regard to cinematography. There is a need for the characters to understand on the mode of eye contact to maintain the course of action in a movie. The eye behavior of the actors enables the audience to understand the plot and the flow of the movie.in this regard, the tradition is relevant with regard to movie quality.

Virtue theory Essay Example for Free

Virtue theory Essay Abstract: This paper develops and explores a pedagogical innovation for integrating virtue theory into business students basic understanding of general management. Eighty-seven students, in 20 groups, classified three managers real-time videotaped activities according to an elaboration of Aristotles cardinal virtues, Fayols management functions, and Mintzbergs managerial roles. The studys empirical evidence suggests that, akin to Fayols functions and Mintzbergs roles, Aristotles virtues are also amenable to operationalization, reliable observation, and meaningful description of managerial behavior. The study provides an oft-called-for empirical basis for further work in virtue theory as an appropriate conceptual framework for the study and practice of management. The results indicate that virtue theory may be used to re-conceive our fundamental understanding of management, alongside its capacity to weigh moral judgment upon it. Implications and suggestions for future research are discussed. Neither by nature, then, nor contrary to nature do the virtues arise in us; rather we are adapted by nature to receive them, and are made perfect by habit. we become just by doing just acts, temperate by doing temperate acts, brave by doing brave acts. —Aristotle, Nicomachean Ethics V irtue theory has generated increasing interest among moral philosophers (e. g. , Maclntyre, 1981) and business ethicists (e. g. , Hartman, 1998; Koehn, 1995; Mintz, 1996; Moberg, 1999). While limitations of virtue theory have been justly noted (Koehn, 1998), scholars have effectively drawn on Aristotles (1999) virtues to help business students develop their moral capacities (Hartman, 1998; Mintz, 1996; Solomon, 1992). However, a significant challenge remains to help business students incorporate ethical concerns into a more integrated understanding of the practice of management (Park, 1998) and enhance their ability to recognize ethical issues (Gautschi and Jones, 1998). Our study seeks to address the moral integration problem by exploring a pedagogical strategy aimed at providing business students a moral lens via placing the virtues alongside other well-known frameworks of management. In  ©2001. Business Ethics Quarterly, Volume H, Issue 4. ISSN 1052-150X. pp. 561-574 562. BUSINESS ETHICS QUARTERLY particular, students enrolled in a general management course were asked to observe managers actions and classify them according to tbree frameworks: our version of Aristotles (1999) four cardinal virtues; atextbook adaptation of Fayols (1949) functions of management; and our operationalization of Mintzbergs (1973) managerial roles. Most management textbooks are organized according to Fayols four functions (planning, organizing, controlling, and leading), with Mintzbergs roles being the second most-mentioned approach (Carroll and Gillen, 1987). We argue that, just as Fayol and Mintzberg provide frameworks that have proven helpful in talking and thinking about management and for helping students and practitioners to develop good habits of organizing, planning, making resource allocation decisions, and so forth, so also an Aristotelian approach will help us to talk and think about management in a way that permits integrating good ethical habits into management practice. Put differently, as expressed in the familiar maxim, A way of seeing is also a way of not seeing, at the heart of tbis current study is a pedagogy to provide management students an Aristotelian way of seeing what management is, to place alongside the more familiar and entrenched Fayolian and Mintzbergian ways of seeing. Providing students witb a lens drawn from virtue theory, to use alongside their lenses of managerial functions and roles, promises to help students integrate moral theory into general management thinking and practice. The remainder of our paper is divided into three parts. We begin by describing how we adapted Aristotles four cardinal virtues for our study, and present the tbree general research questions that guided our research. In the second part we present our method and our findings. The final section provides a discussion of the implications of our findings, future directions for research, and the potential usefulness of the virtues for integrating ethical concerns into management education. Virtue Theory and Management. It is commonplace to see management in terms of Fayols functions (planning, leading, organizing, and controlling) and in terms of Mintzbergs roles (interpersonal, informational, decision-making, etc. ). In particular, most management textbooks suggest that these ways of seeing provide the essential, basic lenses for developing an understanding about management (Carroll and Gillen, 1987). In this paper, we contend that virtue theory can be used in a similar way to provide a basic foundational view of management. Indeed, to make our case as forcefully as possible, we claim tbat virtue theory is primarily about management. For example, from Aristotles (1999) assertion tbat tbe purpose of life is to maximize bappiness, and that bappiness can only be maximized by practicing virtues in community, it follows that how we manage our communities is of main concern. Whereas for Aristotle ethics culminated in politics, we are suggesting tbat today etbics culminates in management, as managers play a critical role in society (cf. Maclntyre, 1981). Solomon (1992: 104 emphasis added bere) concurs that an Aristotelian approach to business ethics ARISTOTLES VIRTUES AND MANAGEMENT THOUGHT 563 conceives of business as an essential part of the good life, living well, getting along with others, having a sense of self-respect, and being part of something one can be proud of. Because managers in our society have a great say in what practices occur in business and organizations, and thus in facilitating social purpose, we contend that they are a central figure in virtue theory, Aristotles Virtues Reformulated for Todays Business Organization Just as Fayols original functions have been adapted and reformulated over time to fit and reflect contemporary concerns, so also we have adapted Aristotles four cardinal virtues for our study. Toward this end, we found the work of Solomon (1992) particularly helpful. Thus, our description of wisdom, justice, courage, and self-control takes into account the contextual and embedded qualities of virtues as relevant for present-day managers. We hasten to add that for our present purposes, our focus is on examining whether a virtue theory-based approach to conceptualizing management is empirically possible; it is not critical to our present enterprise that the particular virtues we have chosen, or our particular operationalizations, are the most appropriate. Similar to Aristotle (1999), we conceive of practical wisdom as a capacity for deliberation and action by individuals to obtain what is good for themselves and others in general. Practical wisdom entails the ability to ask insightful questions, evaluate real-world business situations, and apply relevant knowledge to the-individual-in-the-organization (Solomon, 1992: 111) unit of analysis. Instead of an individual or community focus, the business manager who possesses practical wisdom views individuals as embedded in community and understands that a potential dichotomy between the two is more apparent than real. S/he recognizes the reciprocity of individual and community good despite the complexities associated with a plurality of different stakeholders. When Mintz (1996: 829) notes that wisdom is an intellectual virtue and is considered to be the consequence of teaching and for that reason requires experience and time to be cultivated, it draws particular attention to the responsibility of scholars and leaders who shape how we think about and understand management. Solomon (1992) views justice, in the sense of fairness and everyone connected with an organization getting their due, as the basic virtue that holds institutions together. This emphasizes a personal responsibility as essential to business organizations, and reflects present-day concerns with the accountability of private and public institutions as citizens in society as well as organizational citizenship behavior by individuals. With the growth of highly complex multinational corporations, burgeoning bureaucracies, and unregulated cyberspace, it is more incumbent today than ever for individuals to act justly with promptitude and pleasure (Pieper, 1965: 63, 113) and to develop personal responsibility for their participation in organizations and larger communities. Our view of the virtue of courage in organizations today differs from traditional notions of courage in battle or courage of ones convictions—both instances 564 BUSINESS ETHICS QUARTERLY of extraordinary virtue which depend on especially threatening contexts (Solomon, 1992). To nurture oneself as an intimate part of a community, we see courage as a continuous fortitude or stamina to resist the ongoing pressures for impression management, job-hopping, and self-aggrandizement in todays organizations, which all potentially undermine other virtues necessary for community, such as honesty, loyalty, trust, and so forth. Courage implies hope and acting for the good of all even if this may diminish ones own status. Courage may involve speaking out on matters of injustice and personal conviction, and generally concerns maintaining ones integrity or wholeness (Solomon, 1992) in an increasingly fragmenting corporate context. The last of the four virtues, self-control or temperance, we see as relating to contemporary concerns with managers emotional regulation and impulse control. Such internal regulation is likened to Aristotles (1999) notion of virtue as a kind of mean, with excess and deficiency as vices (e. g. , see Aristotles commentary on anger). For instance, it is widely accepted that assertive, instead of aggressive or passive-aggressive, communications are more helpful in building relationships. Intermediate, rather than excessive or deficient, emotion is necessary for fostering other corporate virtues such as caring, gentleness, and compassion (Solomon, 1992). Self-control entails keeping focus on the whole, rather than over-reacting to details. Temperance in moderating desires is important (e. g. , reducing exorbitant individual and organizational consumption levels), but self-control vis-a-vis emotionality is especially relevant in todays crowded organizations, cities, and societies. Of course, the challenge that others have raised (e. g. , Hartman, 1998; Maclntyre, 1981; Mintz, 1996), and which underlies our current study, is to make virtues observable in management practice and a relevant guiding framework for management theory. More generally, this reinforces our overarching goal of placing this alternative way of seeing management alongside the two most common current ways of seeing (i. e. , Fayol and Mintzberg), and having virtue theory viewed as a partner framework for understanding and guiding management theory and practice. Research Questions We did not enter this study with a particular set of hypotheses we wished to test. Rather, ours is an exploratory study aimed at examining whether Aristotles virtues are similarly observable in managerial behavior by students as are Fayols functions and Mintzbergs roles. This leads to our first research question, to determine whether there are any differences between how able management students are to capture and classify managerial behavior using virtue theory versus the more commonly used managerial functions and roles frameworks. Can students be trained to see the four virtues as often as the managerial functions and roles? In terms of anticipated results from this first question, since our methodology was adapted from Mintzbergs original study, we expected students to be able to. ARISTOTLES VIRTUES AND MANAGEMENT THOUGHT 565 classify a greater proportion of managers activities using his framework than Fayols. We were not sure how well virtue theory could be used to classify behavior, but, given that it is a less common lens through which to view management, we would not have been surprised had students observed virtues less frequently. Of course, the less frequently virtue theory is able to categorize management behavior, the less utility it might have as an overarching approach on par with function and role theory. Our second research question is a deeper examination of the first. We wanted to compare how the various students applied the tbree frameworks, with an eye toward seeing whether there was some consistency in classifications of managers activities across students. Again, given the kinship between our methodology and Mintzbergs, we expected his framework to generate the highest inter-rater reliability. And, given the fact that management virtue theory is relatively underdeveloped, we might expect to see the least consistency in this framework. Of course, we were interested in this question because, in order for the virtues to be a useful framework for understanding management, they must be amenable to operationalization and consistent observation. We are using virtues as a way of understanding or (re)conceiving what management is, not as a way to pass moral judgment on it. In sum, we are interested in whether the consistency of students classifications of virtues were comparable to managerial functions and roles. Finally, we were curious to examine whether there were any inter-relationships between virtue theory and the other two frameworks. Again, as there is virtually (pun intended) no research in this area, our a priori expectations were based on speculation and intuition. Thus, for example, we might expect that managers who exhibit relatively high levels of justice might be more likely to manifest the controlling function and the decisional role. In asking this third exploratory question, we wanted to investigate how the virtues might be related to functions and roles in the behavior of actual managers, and how the three frameworks may be integrated. Method The methodology used for this study was adapted from the original method Mintzberg (1973) used in developing his managerial roles. We videotaped three managers from the same manufacturing firm during their regular work hours. The total amount of taping for all three managers combined was 9 hours, 39 minutes, and 56 seconds, and included the general manager, the financial controller, and a sales manager. These managerial positions comprise a reasonable representation of the variation in managerial job categories of the focus organization. The data reported here are based on the work of twenty student groups enrolled in one of three sections of an Introduction to Management and Organization Theory course offered in a midwest public university. The data reported here are based on the work of 87 students, with 4 or 5 students in each group. Each group was given the task of classifying one of the three different managers behavior according to each of the frameworks developed by Aristotle, Fayol, and 566 BUSINESS ETHICS QUARTERLY Mintzberg. To help students operationalize each of the categories within each of the three frameworks, the instructor provided them with templates of each. An abridged overview of the templates is provided in Table 1. The templates described various behaviors that represent each of the managerial virtues, functions, and roles. Readers wishing more detailed information on Fayols functions may consult any introductory management textbook (the template used in this study was based on the description presented in Starke and Sexty, 1992, the textbook used in the students course). Similarly, further information on Mintzbergs managerial roles can be found in Mintzberg (1973), which was used to prepare the template for this study. Table 1: Operationalization of Virtues, Functions, and Roles Category Sample Actions. Aristotles Virtues Practical Wisdom Justice Courage Self-control Using appropriate knowledge required to size up a real world situation and making a decision that increases the common good; helping subordinates to improve in a way that allows them to feel good about themselves; asking insightful questions Giving credit for success where credit is due; assigning appropriate accountability and responses for failure; accepting and acknowledging the merit in advice/wisdom from others. Treating set-backs as temporary; empowering others rather than hoarding power; complimenting others; accepting others counsel even when it may seem to diminish self status Making other-full decisions; calming a situation where over-reaction might be tempting; correcting a mistake in a self-controlled manner; letting go of details to embrace a larger perspective Fayols Functions Planning Organizing Controlling Determining new industries to enter in the future; setting and priorizing market share goals; determining tevel of vertical integration; choosing strategic focus; implementing and evaluating plans. Setting policy statements; establishing procedures; setting rules; determining how a specific service is to be performed or product to be manufactured; ensuring payroll or accounting functions are performed uniformly across the organization Touring facilities; reviewing financial/productivity reports; evaluating individual, group and/or organizational performance; rewarding good performance or taking corrective action for poor performance Mintzbergs Roles Interpersonal Informational Decisional. Helping a subordinate to leam a new task; making job assignments for subordinates; meeting with other managers at the same level within the organization; talking to competitors/suppliers/customer organizations Readitig industry newspapers; attending industry conferences; reading fmancial reports; sending memos; attending weekly staff meetings; relaying information fiom upper level managers; lobbying for organizational unit Develop a new way to produce or to market a product or service; responding to day-to-day crises; setting budgets; deciding how to increase capacity; conducting union negotiations. ARISTOTLES VIRTUES AND MANAGEMENT THOUGHT 567 An earlier study based on these data provided a much more detailed rationale for how each of the various categories and sub-categories were established. For the present study, it is sufficient to make two notes. First, rather than provide a detailed analysis of each of Mintzbergs ten roles, we here report data only for his three basic roles: interpersonal, informational, and decisional. This allows for a much more parsimonious presentation. Second, our analysis includes data on only three of Fayols roles: planning, controlling, and organizing. Students were not asked to code Fayols leading function for several reasons, but mostly because the curriculum in our university covers the leading function in a different course. 2 Results The data from the twenty reports were analyzed in several ways to address our three guiding research questions. We used simple descriptive statistics to examine the first question, namely, whether there were any differences between how ably students could classify managers behaviours using the three conceptual frameworks (i. e. , virtues, functions, and roles). As shown in Table 2, the findings were different than expected. First, because our methodology is adapted from Mintzbergs, we expected that his roles would be evident more often in the videotapes than Fayols functions and Aristotles virtues. We found that the opposite occurred. Although the students did classify 80 percent of the managers behavior using Mintzbergs roles, this was slightly less than the 82 percent of the time they classified using Fayols functions, and both these are statistically significantly less than the 89 percent of managers behavior students classified using Aristotles virtues (p . 01). Practical wisdom was the most frequently categorized virtue at 48. 4 percent, followed by justice at 26. 6 percent, courage at 8. 6 percent, and self-control at 5. 3 percent. Fayols functions were categorized at 17. 1 percent for planning, 22. 5 percent for organizing, and 42. 4 percent for controlling. Mintzbergs roles were categorized 51. 3 percent for interpersonal, 24. 5 percent for informational, and 4. 4 percent for decisional. Our second research question was to examine how much consistency there was between students in observing the various virtues in managers. For virtue theory to be a useful way to understand management, and for it to be most helpful in developing students ethical competencies, there should be consistency. Thus, inter-rater reliabilities were calculated to measure the consistency of student group observations vis-a-vis each framework (see Table 2). As we expected, inter-rater reliability scores among the 20 groups were the highest for Mintzhergs roles at . 98 and lowest for Fayols functions at . 82; Aristotles virtues ranked between these two frameworks, at . 91. 568 BUSINESS ETHICS QUARTERLY. Table 2: Descriptive Statistics and Inter-Rater Reliability Category n Category mean (†¢/o of time) Wisdom 20 48. 4 20. 3 Justice 20 26. 6 19. 9 Courage 20 8. 6 8. 3 Self-control 20 5. 3 Framework mean (†¢/. of time) Framework inter. rater reliability 88  » 5. 1 5d .91 82. D .82 80. 2 n Aristotles Virtues Fayols unctions Planning 20 17 1 14. 5 Organizing 20 22. 5 18. 7 Controlling 20 42. 4 19. 8 Interpersonal 20 SI. 3 14. 4 Infonnational 20 24 5 5. 5 Decisional 20 4. 4 3 1 Mintzber gs Roles Finally, our third research question was to explore how the virtues related to the other frameworks. Toward this end we calculated Pearson correlations between each virtue, function, and role (see Table 3 below). As this is an exploratory study, we used an alpha level of . 10 to examine significant correlations. We found four significant correlations between the virtues and the categories of the other frameworks. Practical wisdom correlated positively with both Fayols planning function (. 38, p=. O99) and Mintzbergs interpersonal role (. 55, p=. O12), and negatively with the controlling function (-. 41, p=. O74). Justice correlated negatively with the interpersonal role (-.40, p=. O78) and had an almost statistically significant positive correlation with the controlling function (. 36, p=. 118). Two more statistically significant correlations were found within the four virtues: (i) a negative correlation between justice and practical wisdom (-. 77, p=. OOO); and (ii) a negative correlation between justice and courage (-. 51, p=. O21). Finally, three other significant correlations emerged among categories outside of virtue theory: (i) a negative correlation between the organizing function and the controlling function (-. 70, p=.OOl); (ii) a negative correlation between the informational and decisional roles (-. 45, p=. O49); and (iii) a positive correlation between the planning function and the interpersonal role (. 61, p=. 004). In sum, it may be noteworthy that, of the nine statistically significant correlations found, most included at least one of the virtues (six), and fewer included one of the functions or one of the roles (four each). ARISTOTLES VIRTUES AND MANAGEMENT THOUGHT ao S p O g o 9 q o o o II 569 p o CN Z 9 tn so rn o e s o I o 00 I o 10 (N 2 g o o o o o 2S8 e o ci d o 8 i o. b O o U  § i  § 9 U , . ; N .2 s 3 570 BUSINESS ETHICS QUARTERLY Discussion For proponents of a virtue theory of management, the results of our exploratory study are encouraging. Our findings offer preliminary empirical support for the contention that Aristotles virtues provide a useable framework for integrating moral concerns into a holistic view of management. Our results, that students are able to observe the virtues in actual managerial behavior, encourage their further use and development as a framework for education in management theory and business ethics. We will now discuss the implications of our findings, and future research opportunities, in more detail. Research Question #7 In regard to our first research question concerning the different frameworks efficacy to classify managerial behavior, Aristotles virtues performed better than the two most commonly used conceptual frameworks in management teaching. Students were able to use virtue theory to categorize almost ninety percent of managers behavior, about ten percent more than functions or roles. Thus, the further use and development of a virtue theory framework for teaching students about the responsibilities of management is supported. Future researchers may examine the link between the training that students receive and their subsequent ability to observe virtues, and also whether their ability to observe virtues is related to their likelihood of putting them into practice. This latter linkage, between being able to see in others and doing oneself, also undergirds mainstream management theory (e. g., students who observe the managerial roles will be more able to play those roles themselves) and is of particular relevance from a virtue theory perspective. Students who traditionally are taught to pose questions like What function or role should I be trying to improve as a manager? can be provided a framework to also ask Which virtue do I need to pay more attention to in order to develop as a manager? Do I practice enough justice in my interactions with subordinates? Have I been courageous in my dealings with upper management when advocating for my staff? Am I adequately temperate in my work aspirations? This approach to incorporate an ethical dimension within students professional identity is welcome given the competing complexities and demands of business life, and may help to address Parks (1998) concern with business students integrating ethical issues with other business frameworks. Unfortunately, current business ethics courses may be perceived as unrelated to the rest of what students are taught in business schools if they do not define a set of ethical responsibilities and practices in conjunction with other functional and role requirements of management proper. As a result, when students come to fill managerial positions, they may be left virtually point-of-viewless regarding their responsibilities as managers vis-a-vis ethical issues, and have a constrained ability to define managerial success. ARISTOTLES VIRTUES AND MANAGEMENT THOUGHT 571 Research Question #2 In examining our second research question, we found a relatively high level of inter-rater reliability across student group categorizations of the virtues, comparable to the categorizations for the two more mainstream views of management. Beyond providing additional empirical support to continue to develop a virtue theory of management, this finding also draws our attention to further study what the key management virtues are and how we should describe them. In particular, partially in response to readers who might be surprised at the high incidence of virtuous behavior observed in our managers (e. g. , Maclntyre, 1981), our exploratory study begs future research to more closely examine the content of what the students were observing to be virtuous behavior. The consistent student observations are striking because operationalizing the virtues is not an easy task. For example, a person can act fairly without manifesting the virtue of justice if he does so without promptitude and pleasure (Pieper, 1965) and, similarly, performing a courageous act does not make a person courageous. In this light, the consistency of observations in our study should serve to encourage researchers who focus on specifying which virtues are most important for contemporary managers, because it lessens their need to limit or compromise their choice to easy-to-operationalize virtues. In any case, we suggest that future research use multiple method research designs to study virtues. For example, researchers could collect self-report data alongside videotapes, where managers are asked to describe, say, what prompted them to act fairly in a given situation. Similarly, researchers may interview subordinates and colleagues with whom focal managers interact. There may also be merit in developing a grounded theory of virtuous management, and analyzing observers classifications. As the research stream matures, there is potential for experimental designs and even survey instrument research. In short, empirical research within a virtue theory perspective has the potential to utilize and draw from the same methods and design strategies that have proven useful for other theoretical points of view. Research Question #5 The answer to the third research question provides a final point of departure for future research. For example, what do the positive correlations between practical wisdom and planning, practical wisdom and interpersonal roles, and the negative correlation between wisdom and controlling suggest? Is the wise manager one who controls less and pays more attention to issues of planning and interpersonal relations? Or, do these correlations reflect a bias in students towards the rightness of more participatory management styles that have become increasingly in vogue? Another question arising from the correlational analysis is the meaning of the negative association between justice and practical wisdom and justice and the interpersonal roles. Does the manager who displays more 572 BUSINESS ETHICS QUARTERLY practical wisdom do so at a cost to justice as we have operationalized them? Further, does the negative correlation between justice and the interpersonal role (and the almost-statistically-significant positive correlation between justice and controlling) indicate that students regard exhibiting the interpersonal role as somehow unjust and manipulative and not concerned with giving employees their due? Do managers who act justly perhaps do so at a cost to interpersonal relationships (e. g. , perhaps students perceived as just managers who enforce rules without adequate regard to unique personal needs)? The negative correlation between justice and courage draws further attention to issues around managerial manipulation, if students viewed managers ability to act unjust as something that takes courage. Alternatively, perhaps students see as courageous managers who protect their employees, even if this is not just toward shareholders. Along a different line, perhaps future research should examine the complementarity of virtues among managerial teams. Following Nadler and Tushmans (1990) argument that management teams should have leaders with complementary skills, so also the managers in our study may have complementary virtues. Thus, for example, one manager may be wiser while another more just. Such an approach leads to fascinating opportunities to examine the interplay between these virtues across managers. Finally, a comment on a non-finding in the correlational analysis. What about self-control? Is the lack of significant relationships with other categories, and the relatively low frequency of temperate behavior observed, an artifact of the methodology as might be the case if, for example, self-control is the least amenable to direct observation? Future research might find higher levels of self-control through self-reports asking managers about their feelings and stress levels during particular interactions. Similarly, one might design experiments using confederates to create highly frustrating interpersonal scenarios to assess the level of self-control displayed by subjects. These types of questions are indicative of potentially important directions in future research. Alternatively, perhaps our data suggest that future researchers should consider replacing self-control as a primary virtue for managers. Recall that the primary focus of our paper was to develop empirical support for the development of a virtual theory to conceptualize and understand management; we do not contend that the four virtues we have used here are necessarily the best or most appropriate. Our findings do demonstrate the merit in developing a virtue theory of management, and we now invite others to join us in the task of deciding which are the most important virtues for contemporary managers, a task which requires specifying its undergirding moral point of view (Frankena, 1973). Conclusion Our exploratory study provides welcome empirical support.